Influence of Perceived Racial Discrimination on The Health of Immigrant Children in Canada - Nursing Assignment Help

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Abstract Racial discrimination and racism are recognized as determinants of health for adults. Less is understood regarding the influence of discrimination targeted towards parents, the family, or the cultural and children’s health. Data from the New Canadian Children and Youth Study (NCCYS) are used in this paper. The NCCYS is a national, longitudinal study of children whose families settled in urban centers of Canada.

We analyzed data from individuals who settled in the metropolitan Vancouver area from six ethnic communities: Mainland China, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Iran, Afghanistan, and the Punjab who were interviewed at two times, approximately 2 years apart.

Data were collected on perceived parental, family, and cultural discrimination. Our depen dent variable was parent-reported child health status. Over time, perceived parental discrimination and perceived family discrimination decreased; and both forms of discrimination had a positive effect on child health. In contrast, perceived cultural discrimination increased over time and had a negative effect on child health at both times.

Different forms of discrimination have different effects on child health. Racial discrimination is complex. Its influence on either increasing family cohesion, and thereby leading to improved health, or increasing stress, thereby leading to poorer health needs to be explored further.

Introduction 

Racial discrimination and racism are recognized as determinants of health in adult populations (Harris et al. 2015; Paradies et al. 2015; Priest et al. 2013; Pascoe and Smart Richman 2009; Krieger 2000). Limited research has examined this relationship in child populations (Paradies et al. 2015; Bécares et al. 2015). 

Racial discrimination is defined as Bany distinction, exclusion, restriction or prefer ence based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin^ (United Nations 1969). Racism has been defined in various ways, but generally is considered to be the action or attitude that subordinates individuals or groups of people, through a power relationship, ranking some groups as culturally superior to others (Williams and Mohammed 2009; Jones 1997).

It emanates from an organized system with dominant ranking of one or more groups, and leads to restriction of goods or resources to groups allocated as inferior (Williams and Mohammed 2009; Jones 1997). Cultural racism is a fundamental component of racism (Jones 1997) and can lead to racial discrimination (Williams and Mohammed 2009). The United Nations on the Convention of the Rights of the Child states that children must be protected from all forms of discrimination (United Nations 1969).

Methods 

We report findings from the two data collection points of the NCCYS, a national, longitudinal study of children whose families emigrated to six urban centers in Canada (George and Bassani 2013, 2015; George et al. 2012; Bassani and George 2012; Beiser et al. 2010, 2011; Oxman-Martinez and Choi 2014; Oxman-Martinez et al. 2012). Our analysis includes data from individuals who settled in the metropolitan Vancouver area from six ethnic groups: Mainland China, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Iran, 530 George M.A., Bassani C.

Sample 

Sample inclusion factors were the following: immigration from any of the six specific countries or regions, had lived in Canada for 10 or fewer years, were fluent in the dominate language of their country of origin, and had at least one child in either of the two developmentally formative age groups (4–6 years or 11–13 years). Participants from these specific countries and dominant language groups were selected because they represented the current ethnic makeup of these Canadian cities. For example, Punjabi speaking people from India made up the largest community emigrating from India to the metropolitan Vancouver area so this group was included in the study. 

Quota sampling was employed to ensure an equal sample size from each immigrant group. During initial recruitment, for each ethnic community, 180 children were included: 90 children from each age cohort. 

Measures

Dependent Variable 

One dependent variable was assessed, parent rated health status of the child. Self-rated health (or in this case, rating by the parent) has become increasingly popular as a global measure of health, and has methodologically been found to be a reliable and valid predictor of general health or specific illnesses across communities, including different cultures and adult age groups, and educational backgrounds (Huisman et al. 2007; Quesnel-Vallee 2007; Benyamini and Idler 1999; Idler and Benyamini 1997). Parents were asked: BIn general, would you say your son’s/daughter’s health is: excellent, very Influence of Perceived Racial Discrimination on the Health of... 531good, good, fair or poor.^

This categorical question was dummy coded, comparing those with excellent health to those who do not have excellent health. Dummy coding this variable has been found to be both useful and valid depending on the research question (Manor et al. 2000) or the quality of the sample—considering issues such as the size of age range (Finnäs et al. 2008). Some researchers choose to include two categories (combining very good and excellent) compared to other categories (e.g., Setia et al. 2011). Based on past research (George et al. 2012; Manor et al. 2000), the qualitative nature of the variable and the variable’s distribution were elected to contrast excellent vs nonexcellent health.
    

Statistical Analysis 

Descriptive and logistic regression analyses were conducted. We report means and percentages for continuous and categorical variables, respectively, for Times 1 and 2. T tests were conducted to report statistical variance between Times 1 and 2 for the continuous variables and chi square was conducted to report variance over time for categorical variables. A criterion p level of 0.001 was established. 

Hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) was used to assess the effect, over time that perceived ethnic discrimination had on the likelihood of a child being in excellent health. A two-level hierarchical model was developed to account for multiple obser vations that are nested within a single person (35). Level one includes Binterview^ level data: time variable (either Time 1 or Time 2) and all static variables that do not fluctuate over time. Level 2 included non-static participant variables: parent report excellent health, the three discrimination measures, and two control variables, income and education.

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