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Loss & Grief Foundational Theorists - Colin Murray Parkes | Erich Lindermann | John Bowlby | Elizabeth Kubler-Ross | Gerald Caplan | Case Study Assignment Help

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Loss and Grief Foundational Theorists: Colin Murray Parkes | Erich Lindermann | John Bowlby | Elizabeth Kubler-Ross | Gerald Caplan | Case Study Assignment Help

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Introduction to Loss & Grief & Loss and Grief Foundational Theorists

This unit will help you learn about and develop your understanding of loss and grief foundational theorists. Grief, however, is a highly contested discursive terrain, affecting definitions, perceptions, and conceptualisations about what it means to experience loss, and what it is to grieve. In traditional Western societies, dominant discourses on grief have always made normal the practice of pathologising, othering, and essentializing those who are living with loss. In this module, the foundational loss and grief theorists are outlined but we also examine alternatives to the medical model's dominance and control over the discipline of "grief work" and theory. Conceptualizing loss and Grief
  1. What do we mean by ‘loss’?
  2. What do we mean by ‘grief’?
Language of Loss and Grief As with any field of study, there is some language that is specific to the field but also that is used in a variety of ways (both professionally and within the broader society). Although some of the language used within this unit reflects the traditional literature of loss and grief, we also explore how this language has been critiqued using Feminist, Poststructuralist and Queer theories. It is important to consider that all knowledge is socially constructed and that we do not have to accept these constructions uncritically. Western society does not adequately recognise the diverse ways in which people grieve, and thus does not readily facilitate alternative ways of grieving and this has implications for social work. However, it is also important to place current thinking within a historical context. To develop an appreciation of the theoretical foundations within this area, and to capture an image of the developmental context of loss and grief literature, the following historical time frame of the foundational thinkers, dating back to Sigmund Freud, are provided in this time-Line. Loss and Grief Literature Time-Line: Date Theorist/s Works
  • 1917 Freud Mourning and Melancholia
  • 1944 Lindemann Symptomatology of Grief
  • 1950’s Bowlby Attachment Theory
  • 1960’s Parad and Caplan Crisis Theory
  • 1964 Parkes Study of widows
  • 1969 Kubler-Ross Interviews with the terminally ill
  • 1972 Worden Grief Theory and grief counseling
  • 1977 Raphael Grief and disasters
  • 1983 Rando Child death
Key Foundational Thinkers in Loss and Grief Literature Sigmund Freud: Psychodynamic Theory Freud (1917) recognises death and grief as stages within the developmental lifecycle, separate from depressive feelings. Freud acknowledged grief needed to be understood separate from depressive feelings. “Grief work” was first used by Freud, and in later years was utilised by many theorists. The bereaved, he believed did not require medical intervention, and suggested the process of mourning or grief work needed to occur in a natural, uninterrupted environment. A key issue that arose from Freud’s work includes the appropriate length of time individuals’ should spend grieving. The concept of grief work includes:
  1. The acceptance of reality that the deceased person is no longer present
  2. A withdrawal of energy directed towards this lost object and invest it in something new
Freud viewed grief work as the process of reclaiming the invested energy from the lost object and redirecting this energy into another object. This is accomplished through the process of identification with the lost object and integration into the self by preoccupation with the deceased. Through this process of ingestion, the ego is free to reinvest their energy into another object. The psychological function of grief therefore anticipated to release the bereaved individual from the lost object. Colin Murray Parkes: Cognitive Theories Parkes, a British psychiatrist, centered his work on the cognitive experiences of widows’ elements of grief. His works uncovered high levels of yearning among windows, a desire for their own death, and high levels of anger and self-reproach. Parkes describes four phases of grief:
  • Phase 1: Numbness (the loss is disregarded)
  • Phase 2: Yearning (with an urge to unearth the lost object)
  • Phase 3: Disorganisation and despair
  • Phase 4: Reorganisation
Parkes explored the various transitions individuals’ face (including bereavement); how these adjustments and transitions change their ‘assumptive world’ through the four phases of grief. As people build certain assumptions about their world and ‘live’ within this, the loss of significant individuals or objects within their world challenges the assumption their world was built around. Inevitably the individual is forced to develop new assumptions to fit with their new life space. New assumptions provide the avenue for individuals to evaluate and develop a new construction of the self. Horowitz (1976) argued that such loss can activate “latent self- images” and “pre-existent” role relationship models. The self, among relationship roles are re-evaluated. The meaning of one’s life is thus re-evaluated and re-formulated. Cognitive theories focus on the meaning of loss, and the challenges it omits upon the belief system and the assumptive worlds of individuals. Erich Lindermann: Grief Management Lindemann explored various grief reactions; normal grief, complicated grief, anticipatory grief, and describes the process of grief as a constructive process. He highlights aspects of grief work to include social support and collectivity, resurrection of the deceased person, and grief for oneself. Morbid grief reactions usually display distortions of the normal process of grief work. These include a delay of reaction to the loss, distortion of reactions, the belief of symptoms or illness of the deceased, an alteration of one’s social network, hostility towards particular individuals, agitated depression, and self-loathing. John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Bowlby’s monumental work on attachment and loss focused on the experiences of bereaved children (in particular), and were based on the notion of attachment. “Attachment behaviour is a form of behaviour that results in attaining or maintaining proximity to some other clearly identified individual who is conceived as better able to cope. It is most obvious whenever that person is frightened, fatigued or sick, and is assured by comforting and caregiving” This integral aspect of human nature is evident throughout the life cycle, and is prevalent in times of emergencies  The loss of an important attachment, as outlined through Bowlby’s work involves three interlocking elements:
  1. The pain of the breaking of a bond with a significant other, while accepting the loss
  2. The consequences of the loss (the psychological implications of not having guidance, reassurance, support from the lost object)
  3. The reduced problem-solving effectiveness due to the loss
There have been two developments within Bowlby’s work which have re-conceptualised practitioners’ views of bereavement experiences. Firstly, normal mourning experiences can last much longer than six months (which Lindemann had anticipated). Secondly, behaviours which were seen as pathological were in fact found to be common in the healthy, normal mourning process (interlocking elements). Gerald Caplan: Stress Theories Caplan’s work in particular focused on the psychological crises experienced by an objective loss. As a result of loss, individuals become inevitable to experiencing learned helplessness, become more dependent on others, and their defenses weaken. This stress or crisis period is usually time-limited, and a level of psychological equilibrium is restored. Caplan stressed grief reactions of crying, emotional detachment and denial to distance themselves from the loss situation as normal within the initial months of the loss. During the readjustment period the mourner comes to terms with the loss, and renews the capacity for normal functioning (to that before the loss) by developing new attachments. This process may take a year or more. Throughout this process of grief, a current loss may reactivate past loss experiences, while the risk of psychopathology as an outcome of the loss experience largely depends on the support network of the individual. Caplan explains that if individuals have a good support network available to them during their period of mourning, the risk of psychopathology is significantly reduced. Elizabeth Kubler-Ross Kubler-Ross is most known for her work with dying patients around their reactions to dying. She describes five stages individuals are likely to experience when they are informed or aware they are dying:
  1. Denial- This stage is met with denial, anxiety and shock “it can’t be true”
  2. Anger- Rage and resentment is experience after the initial shock. Individuals can be difficult to relate to because of their fury and frustration
  1. Bargaining- The individual begins to make pleas with god, health practitioners, family and friends
  1. Depression- The person begins to understand they are not getting better as their health deteriorates. They become less responsive, experience feelings of guilt, unworthiness.
  1. Acceptance- The individual lets go of all previous emotions and the struggle is over
It is important to note that the work of Kubler-Ross is about those who are dying – not those who are mourning their loss (or potential loss). This is different and should not be applied to people who are grieving a loss. With this brief background, you should now complete the readings outlined below in essential and further readings for this module. While these are listed alphabetically, it is beneficial to read them in their historical order as per the Time-line above (i.e. start with Freud, then Lindemann etc). While you are doing this, try to think about the connections between the work of each author and how they have built on each other as this will be helpful for your learning activity. Module One Learning Activity Complete the following learning activity. How has your reading and thinking in this module added to your knowledge base about grief and loss?
  • From Module One’s essential reading list, select one reading and discuss your views about this theoretical approach. How has what you have read added to your knowledge?
Theoretical underpinning is essential within your responses. You must in-text reference at least three academic sources when reflecting on your own learning. You may write in the first person in this piece of academic writing, as you are specifically reflecting on your own learning.

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