PYC4807: Test Development and Test Adaptation and Translation - Management Assignment Help

Assignment Task:

Task:

1 Psychometric theoryThis theme deals with aspects of psychometric theory such as reliability and validity, norm-referenced and criterion-referenced measures, and bias. You have to be able to evaluate a psychological assessment measure in terms of these characteristics. You furthermore need to relate this information to the development of a psychological assessment measure. Assessment in a multicultural context is also covered with the emphasis on the designs and procedures used in adapting and translating measures for cross-cultural application. The topics included in this theme are as follows:

Topic 1.1 Psychometric properties
Topic 1.2 Test development and test adaptation and translation
Topic 1.1 Psychometric propertiesPsychological assessment is applied in various contexts (you will learn more about this in theme 3). In each context, the purpose of testing needs to be specified before an assessment battery (i.e. the combination of psychological assessment measures that will be used) can be assembled. A measure is evaluated in terms of a number of characteristics before including it in the battery.
First, one should consider what attribute, characteristic or construct it measures (various types of measures will be discussed in theme 2).
Second, its appropriateness for an individual, group or organisation should be determined. This implies that one should be familiar with the characteristics of the group or context that the measure was developed for. The group should be representative of your client.
Third, one should determine if the measure is psychometrically sound. In this regard, the Employment Equity Act as discussed by Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapter 2, section 2.4.4.2) refers to the properties of validity, reliability and equivalence.
1.1.1Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced measuresMany psychological assessment measures are norm-referenced. This implies that an individual’s score on the measure is interpreted by comparing this score to the performance of people similar to himself or herself. A norm is defined in Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapter 3, section 3.6) as “a measurement against which the individual’s raw score is evaluated so that the individual’s position relative to that of the normative sample can be determined”. The normative sample refers to the group of people on whom the test was initially standardised during the test development process. Therefore, it stands to reason that a test should be standardised on a representative group of the population for which the test is intended (e.g. secondary school learners, apprentices or first-year students). If you administer a psychological test to a test-taker, you should be sure that there is an appropriate norm group with which the score of the test-taker could be compared. The need for local standardisations of psychological tests developed in other countries is emphasised in the articles by Gadd and Phipps (2012) and Oosthuizen and Phipps (2012). These authors focused specifically on neuropsychological tests. Note: When reading these articles, you need to consider only the characteristics of the international norm groups in comparison to those of the local norm groups. In Foxcroft and Roodt (2018, section 3.6.4), a number of ways are discussed in which raw scores could be transformed into normed scores. Make sure that you understand the difference between the different types of test norms.
An individual’s score can also be interpreted by comparing performance to an external criterion (rather than to the performance of a norm group). The examination you will have to write for this module is an example of a criterion-referenced measure. An expectancy table is sometimes used once enough data have been gathered on the typical performance of test-takers in a particular setting, to set a cut-off score. Such a table gives an indication of the relation between performance on a test and success on a criterion (refer to section 3.6.6).
1.1.2ReliabilityMake sure that you understand the concept of a correlation coefficient and the related statistical significance (chapter 3, section 3.5.4) as this forms the basis of reliability calculations and also of some forms of validity. Reliability refers to the consistency with which a psychological test measures whatever it measures. Refer to Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapter 4) for detail on this topic. When administering a measure, you should be aware of the fact that the score that an individual obtains is not a perfectly accurate reflection of that individual’s standing on the construct being measured. You should understand what is meant by a person’s observed score, true score and error score in the context of reliability. In the prescribed book, different types of reliability coefficients are discussed (Table 1.1 below provides a summary - note that you do NOT have to know the formulae for these coefficients.) Guidelines are also provided on the interpretation of a reliability coefficient and how high this value should be in order to be acceptable (chapter 4, section 4.2.4.1). Authors differ on what they regard as acceptable – the more important the decision(s) that will be made on the basis of the test scores, the higher the coefficient needs to be. For example, if a decision is made on whether a child qualifies for special education, a high level of reliability is required. The standard error of measurement is an indication of the probable fluctuations in a person’s observed score due to the imperfect reliability of the test. The article by Gradidge and De Jager (2011) illustrates the evaluation of the reliability of a measure.

• Table 1.1: Types of reliability coefficients
• Type of reliability coefficient Forms
• Sessions Coefficient Sources of error variance**
• test-retest reliability*
• one form
• two sessions coefficient of stability time sampling
• alternate-form reliability
• (immediate) two forms
• one session coefficient of equivalence
• content sampling
• alternate-form reliability
• (delayed) two forms
• two sessions coefficient of stability coefficient of equivalence time sampling
• content sampling
• split-half reliability
• one form
• one session coefficient of internal consistency content sampling
• inter-item consistency
• Kuder-Richardson/
• Coefficient Alpha one form
• one session coefficient of internal consistency
• content sampling
• content heterogeneity
• scorer reliability scorer differences
• *The interval between tests should rarely exceed six months.
• **As identified in Anastasi and Urbina (1997).
• 1.1.3ValidityValidity refers to the appropriateness of the inferences made from test scores, or, the more traditional definition that a “test measures what it is supposed to measure”. Validity is discussed in Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapter 5). A test is valid for a specific purpose, and therefore there are different validation procedures that need to be considered, namely content-description, construct-identification and criterion-prediction procedures. These procedures are summarised in Table 1.2 below. Note that different statistical methods can be used to establish construct validity (see section 5.2.2.2 in the prescribed book). You also need to be familiar with the following concepts: the validity coefficient, the standard error of estimate and the prediction of the criterion. Different types of validity are evaluated in the article by Gradidge and De Jager (2011). Note: Your understanding of the discussion on reliability and validity in the article will give you an indication of how well you have mastered these concepts as discussed in this tutorial letter and in the prescribed book.
• Table 1.2: Validation procedures
• Evidence of validity Subcategory Examples of tests and relevant criteria
• content description procedures
• face validity content validity Achievement test to determine mastery of knowledge and skills in high school mathematics.
• construct identification procedures Intelligence test subjected to factor analysis to determine the underlying structure.
• criterion** prediction procedures concurrent validity* Personality questionnaire to diagnose the presence of depression.
• predictive validity Aptitude test to predict future performance in an engineering course.
• *Concurrent validity can be employed as a substitute for predictive validity if the criterion data are already available (e.g. current job success of the individuals tested).
• **A criterion is a benchmark variable used to compare and evaluate test scores against. Although a criterion is used in the case of both criterion-referenced tests and criterion prediction validity, these are two separate concepts.
• 1.1.4BiasBias is determined by means of objective, statistical indices and has its origin in elements inherent to a test or in the method and process of measurement. Fairness, on the other hand, is related to social values and philosophies of the use of assessment measures. Fair and ethical assessment practices should be central to all assessment contexts. Psychometric soundness per se does not guarantee fairness, but it would be difficult to apply a measure that is unsound, fairly.
• Before a measure can be used in a multicultural or multilingual context, its equivalence across groups needs to be established. Bias threatens the equivalence of measurement outcomes. In Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapter 7) a distinction is made between measurement bias (i.e. a systematic inaccuracy in measurement) and prediction bias (i.e. when group membership influences the prediction of criterion scores). You need NOT study this topic in detail, but you should be able to define and briefly describe bias at item level (section 7.5.2.1), bias in terms of the factor structure (section 7.5.2.2) and prediction bias (section 7.5.3). Establishing construct equivalence (section 7.5.4) requires a theoretical evaluation, and the evaluation of the factor structure referred to above. Lastly, you should take note of the concept of method bias (section 7.5.6).
• Topic 1.2 Test development and test adaptation and translationThe psychometric properties discussed in the first topic form an integral part of the procedures involved in both test development and test adaptation and translation. These procedures are discussed by Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapters 6 & 7). The initial phases of test development focus on the aim and content of the measure, but already at this stage, the norm population needs to be defined. Later in the process, the psychometric properties (i.e. reliability and validity) are determined, and norms are established. Legislation prevents discrimination in the use of psychological assessment measures. Consequently, the emphasis is on the empirical investigation into item and test bias and on fair test use, implying a responsibility to both test developers and test users.
• 1.2.1Test developmentYou should be able to describe the steps in developing a test. These steps are summarised in Table 6.1 in Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) but you should also know the detail related to each step. The choice of item format is determined by the aim of the measure as well as practical considerations. During item analysis two approaches can be followed. Most tests used at present have been based on the classical test theory approach. A more recent approach, namely item response theory, is useful in determining item bias. This approach also allows for a process termed ‘adaptive testing’. A computerised test is administered, and items are selected while testing to suit the test-taker’s level of ability. Following the item-analysis phase, the test is administered to a representative sample preceding the technical evaluation and establishment of norms. Information related to the development of the test and its psychometric properties is included in the manual for the test. You will use this information to select a relevant measure for your purpose.
• 1.2.2Test adaptation and translationIn Foxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapter 7, section 7.6) steps are suggested for adapting and translating a measure for use in a multicultural and multilingual context. The judgemental approaches and empirical investigations used to ensure equivalence between the original measure and the adapted and translated measure (chapter 7, section 7.4), are core to the adaptation and translation process. Further procedures to investigate bias and equivalence involves: an evaluation of the functioning of the items, considering the structure of the test and the constructs being measured, and the predictive value of the results on the test.
• If you consider chapter 7, section 7.7, you will see that there are two approaches to making measures available for use in multicultural contexts. The successive approach, where a test is developed for one cultural/language group and then adapted and translated for use by another, is used most often and is also the approach described above. The alternative, namely the simultaneous multicultural approach, involves developing tests to be used in multiple cultures and languages. Hill et al. (2013) discuss the development of an indigenous South African personality questionnaire with reference to the selection of a representative sample and the evaluation of the psychometric properties of a measure.
• THEME 2 Types of psychological assessment measuresIn this theme, the theoretical approaches that underlie measures of cognitive ability and personality are discussed, and the nature and purpose of different types of tests are explored. You should be able to use the information available on a test to decide if the test is suitable for your purposes. This implies considering the context of assessment and the reason for testing, the aim and purpose of the measure including the construct measured, the norm group (age, language, culture, etc.) if it is a norm-referenced test and psychometric properties as well as any available research on the use of the test in a multicultural context. Note: You do not have to know all the tests, but you should have knowledge of some examples that you can use when required to propose an assessment battery. In the tables for this theme, summaries are provided of the different types of tests. As a starting point, you should make sure that you know an example of each type of test. The topics included in this theme are as follows:
• Topic 2.1 Assessment of cognitive functioning
• Topic 2.2 Personality assessment
• Topic 2.1 Assessment of cognitive functioningThe measurement of cognitive functioning has been an integral part of the development of psychology as a science. Although the measurement of cognitive functioning has a long history, the main body of cognitive assessment and the measurement procedures that we are familiar with, were developed since the beginning of the last century.
• 2.1.1Different theories of intelligence underlying test developmentFoxcroft and Roodt (2018) (chapter 10), categorised the various theories on intelligence as follows: biological intelligence theories, psychometric intelligence theories and the social or contextual theories. The latter two categories, with their different related theories, resulted in the development of various tests with specific items and formats to assess intellectual ability (more information is provided in Table 2.1 below).
• 2.1.2Measures of cognitive functioning
• Measures of cognitive functioning include assessment tools designed to measure general cognitive functioning (i.e. individual intelligence measures and group tests of intelligence), measures of specific abilities (i.e. aptitude measures and measures of specific cognitive functions), as well as scholastic tests. These measures are discussed in the prescribed book (chapter 10, sections 10.4, 10.5 and 10.6). Measures of general cognitive functioning are used, amongst others, in the context of the developmental assessment of children. In addition, a variety of assessment measures were developed specifically to evaluate development and to detect developmental problems during the infant and pre-school years (chapter 15, section 15.3). To understand the various types of developmental measures better, these measures are organised into developmental screening and diagnostic measures.
• When you select a measure, you will, firstly, determine what type of measure is suitable, based on the context of the assessment and the reason for testing. Table 2.2 below gives a brief description of the use of different types of measures of cognitive functioning. Example items are given in Table 2.3.
• Table 2.1: Cognitive measures based on theories of intelligence
• Assumptions and contributions Examples of theories Examples of tests
• BIOLOGICAL INTELLIGENCE THEORIES
• Focus is placed on the physical structure and functioning of the brain, and objective measures are used. Biological theory
• (e.g. Wundt) PSYCHOMETRIC INTELLIGENCE THEORIES
• Focus is on the structure of intelligence. Intelligence is an unobservable (or latent) trait, and its nature is inferred from observable behaviour, namely test performance. Different theories propose different factors that underlie intelligence. Individuals are compared in terms of their performance in intelligence tests. By means of factor-analysis the underlying (or latent) traits inherent to this performance, are identified and interpreted. Tests based on these theories provide an indication of general ability and specific abilities. Performance on these tests tends to correlate well with academic performance, resulting in predictive validity in an educational context. However, these tests do not provide for contextual factors and the fact that differences in performance may be attributable to differences in educational and socio-economic opportunities. One general factor (g) (Spearman)
• Two-factor theory
• (Spearman)
• Fluid and Crystallised (Cattell)
• Multiple factor theories
• (Thurstone)
• (Guilford)
• Hierarchical theories
• (Vernon)
• (Cattell, Horn, Carroll)
• Individual tests
• JSAIS
• SSAIS-R
• WAIS-IVSA
• Group tests
• PPG
• GSAT
• Aptitude tests
• ASB
• DAT
• TTB2
• CTB2
• SOCIAL OR CONTEXTUAL THEORIES
• Intelligence is defined in terms of adaptive behaviour, and the emphasis is on the context in which the behaviour is evaluated. The related theories provide for real-world environments and adapting to these environments at a cognitive, behavioural or emotional level. (See Bar-On (2006) for a discussion on a measure of emotional intelligence.) Tests based on these theories provide for the potential influence of socio-cultural factors on test results and the related importance of assessing learning potential. However, these measures sometimes provide a less comprehensive profile of abilities (e.g. when only non-verbal items are included); this could impact on the predictive validity. Contextual intelligence
• (Sternberg)
• Dynamic assessment
• (Vygotsky)
• Emotional intelligence
• (Salovey and Mayer)
• (Goleman)
• (Bar-On)
• Multiple intelligences
• (Gardner)
• Contextual
• STAT
• Learning potential
• APIL-B
• TRAM 1/2
• LPCAT
• Emotional
• MEIS
• MSCEIT
• EQ-I

The above Management  Assignment has been solved by our  Management Assignment  Experts at My Uni Paper. Our Assignment Writing Experts are efficient to provide a fresh solution to this question. We are serving more than 10000+ Students in Australia, UK & US by helping them to score HD in their academics. Our experts are well trained to follow all marking rubrics & referencing style.

Be it a used or new solution, the quality of the work submitted by our assignment experts remains unhampered. You may continue to expect the same or even better quality with the used and new assignment solution files respectively. There’s one thing to be noticed that you could choose one between the two and acquire considered worthy of the highest distinction.